II. Connections
1. 5', or five prime end refers to the fifth carbon of the deoxyribose sugar of DNA, which is bonded to a phosphate molecule. This is a covalent bond due to the electronegativities of the two molecules being relatively equal and therefore resulting in shared electrons. However, if one molecule's electronegativity is substantially greater than that of another, then the bond would not be covalent but ionic.
2. mRNA is read by ribosomal subunits via a method in which the nitrogen bases are read by translating them into amino acids three bases at a time, one group of three bases being termed a 'codon'. The codon containing the nitrogen bases Adenine, Uracil, and Guanine is known as the start codon and it signals the ribosomes to begin translating the mRNA three at a time as soon as it is read, which is why the start codon is found at the beginning of transcipts. Once the 'start codon' is read and the mRNA is translated into proteins, each codon that is read corresponds to a specific amino acid, and ultimately each transcript results in a unique expression of the specific codons collectively. No codon is dominant in determining the outcome of the protein which is relevant to genetic incomplete dominance because codons are expressed as a mixture of different amino acids.
3. Semiconservative refers to one of the theoretical methods that DNA is replicated in every cell, stating that two copies of DNA are ultimately produced, each one containing one original strand and one newly synthesized strand. This replication would be hampered in females if that one specific DNA strand was an x-chromosome destined to be inactivated and remain a Barr Body, for such restricts one of a female’s x-chromosomes from extending out of its condensed chromatin form and therefore disables the replication of that DNA in every cell.
4. The enzyme RNA polymerase is a protein that catalyzes ribonucleotides in a new RNA strand by utilizing one strand of DNA as a template. The RNA molecule that is created during this process leaves the nucleus to be translated into proteins by ribosomes, whose subunits are also synthesized in the nucleolus in the nucleus.
5. DNA polymerase is an enzyme that is a protein that replicates DNA by catalyzing free nucleotides to each new strand of deoxyribonucleases on to a original strand belonging to the parent DNA. These deoxribose sugars are bonded to the nucelotides by glycosidic linkages..
6. The process of DNA replication begins with the helicase enzyme which unzips the two strands of DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the DNA’s nitrogen base pairs. As a whole this process of replication is similar to s-phase of the cell cycle which results in the doubling of the amount of a cell's chromesomes, as a karyotype, which is a digital image of chromosomes, of a cell in the following G2 stage of the cell cycle would relate to the DNA replication.
III. Essentials
1. Because the two strands of DNA molecule are antiparallel, the enzyme DNA helicase can only assemble new nucleotide strands in the 5'-3' direction. Despite this, assembly is discontinuous where nucleotides of a 3'-5' strand are only joined to exposed -OH functional groups that are themselves connected to the 3' carbon of a growing strand. Despite the choppy DNA strand, the enzyme ligase initiates the integration of all short stretches of strand.
2. -RNA is composed of only strand of nucleotides, while DNA consists of two.
1. 5', or five prime end refers to the fifth carbon of the deoxyribose sugar of DNA, which is bonded to a phosphate molecule. This is a covalent bond due to the electronegativities of the two molecules being relatively equal and therefore resulting in shared electrons. However, if one molecule's electronegativity is substantially greater than that of another, then the bond would not be covalent but ionic.
2. mRNA is read by ribosomal subunits via a method in which the nitrogen bases are read by translating them into amino acids three bases at a time, one group of three bases being termed a 'codon'. The codon containing the nitrogen bases Adenine, Uracil, and Guanine is known as the start codon and it signals the ribosomes to begin translating the mRNA three at a time as soon as it is read, which is why the start codon is found at the beginning of transcipts. Once the 'start codon' is read and the mRNA is translated into proteins, each codon that is read corresponds to a specific amino acid, and ultimately each transcript results in a unique expression of the specific codons collectively. No codon is dominant in determining the outcome of the protein which is relevant to genetic incomplete dominance because codons are expressed as a mixture of different amino acids.
3. Semiconservative refers to one of the theoretical methods that DNA is replicated in every cell, stating that two copies of DNA are ultimately produced, each one containing one original strand and one newly synthesized strand. This replication would be hampered in females if that one specific DNA strand was an x-chromosome destined to be inactivated and remain a Barr Body, for such restricts one of a female’s x-chromosomes from extending out of its condensed chromatin form and therefore disables the replication of that DNA in every cell.
4. The enzyme RNA polymerase is a protein that catalyzes ribonucleotides in a new RNA strand by utilizing one strand of DNA as a template. The RNA molecule that is created during this process leaves the nucleus to be translated into proteins by ribosomes, whose subunits are also synthesized in the nucleolus in the nucleus.
5. DNA polymerase is an enzyme that is a protein that replicates DNA by catalyzing free nucleotides to each new strand of deoxyribonucleases on to a original strand belonging to the parent DNA. These deoxribose sugars are bonded to the nucelotides by glycosidic linkages..
6. The process of DNA replication begins with the helicase enzyme which unzips the two strands of DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the DNA’s nitrogen base pairs. As a whole this process of replication is similar to s-phase of the cell cycle which results in the doubling of the amount of a cell's chromesomes, as a karyotype, which is a digital image of chromosomes, of a cell in the following G2 stage of the cell cycle would relate to the DNA replication.
III. Essentials
1. Because the two strands of DNA molecule are antiparallel, the enzyme DNA helicase can only assemble new nucleotide strands in the 5'-3' direction. Despite this, assembly is discontinuous where nucleotides of a 3'-5' strand are only joined to exposed -OH functional groups that are themselves connected to the 3' carbon of a growing strand. Despite the choppy DNA strand, the enzyme ligase initiates the integration of all short stretches of strand.
2. -RNA is composed of only strand of nucleotides, while DNA consists of two.
-RNA nucleotides contain the sugar ribose whereas DNA's have the sugar deoxyribose.
- one of DNA’s nitrogen bases is labeled thymine, while RNA's version of the same base is called uracil.
3. -mRNA (messenger RNA) is the class of RNA that contains the recipe for the construction of proteins. They are the outcome of the transcription process of protein synthesis centered in the nucleus.
-tRNA (transfer RNA) is the type of RNA that serves as a transport of amino acids to ribosomes for the production of proteins. They arrange themselves in alignments which the mRNA specifies.
- rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the of RNA molecules that becomes a vital part of ribosomes, because they provide for the decoding of mRNA and assist tRNA in translation.
4. A.Transcription- In the process of transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase reads a template strand of DNA and synthesizes a new complimentary strand, after recognizing the start signal of a promoter or specific base sequence.
B. RNA Splicing- Before mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus to be translated by ribosomes, it must be modified or spliced by which introns or base sequences that don't code for proteins are 'snipped' and exons or protein-coding base sequences are retained.
C. Translation- When a ribosome initiates the translation phase, it reads a mRNA strand three base sequences at a time. Each series of three bases, or codon, corresponds to a specific amino acid which are delivered by tRNA, who in addition carry the anticodon base pairs that are complementary to those of the mRNA. The creation of the protein, or polypeptide from the ribosome is called elongation.
3. -mRNA (messenger RNA) is the class of RNA that contains the recipe for the construction of proteins. They are the outcome of the transcription process of protein synthesis centered in the nucleus.
-tRNA (transfer RNA) is the type of RNA that serves as a transport of amino acids to ribosomes for the production of proteins. They arrange themselves in alignments which the mRNA specifies.
- rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the of RNA molecules that becomes a vital part of ribosomes, because they provide for the decoding of mRNA and assist tRNA in translation.
4. A.Transcription- In the process of transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase reads a template strand of DNA and synthesizes a new complimentary strand, after recognizing the start signal of a promoter or specific base sequence.
B. RNA Splicing- Before mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus to be translated by ribosomes, it must be modified or spliced by which introns or base sequences that don't code for proteins are 'snipped' and exons or protein-coding base sequences are retained.
C. Translation- When a ribosome initiates the translation phase, it reads a mRNA strand three base sequences at a time. Each series of three bases, or codon, corresponds to a specific amino acid which are delivered by tRNA, who in addition carry the anticodon base pairs that are complementary to those of the mRNA. The creation of the protein, or polypeptide from the ribosome is called elongation.
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