Chapter 45 and 47

II. Connections

a.       Both biotic potential and carrying capacity refer to the limits of a certain population within its own ecosystem. Biotic potential is the maximum rate of increase per individual for any population growing under ideal conditions, while carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals in a species or population that a  given environment can sustain indefinitely.

b.      A trophic level is all organisms the same number of transfer steps away from the energy input into an ecosystem. Biological magnification relates to trophic levels because it is a process in which a substance that degrades slowly or not at all becomes ever more concentrated in tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels of a food web.

c.       Both autotrophs and detritovores play crucial roles in the flow of matter through the biosphere (including water, carbon and nitrogen).  Autotrophs  are the primary producers of energy in the energy pyramid , while detitivores decompose some organisms and are responsible for returning water , carbon, and nitrogen back into the soil which then returns to the atmosphere.

d.      Mitochondria  are the organelles in which the second and third stages of aerobic resp. take place.  With an increase of human population, as well as other factors such as cars and industrial factories, green house gases can be created by the increase of carbon in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming.

III. Essentials

a.       I. Density-dependent limiting factors

A.     Populations cannot keep growing due to lack of resources

a.       Essential source in short supply is a limiting factor on pop. Growth

b.      Often more than 1 factor that limits growth

II. carrying capacity and logistic growth

A.     Populations require more resources as they grow

a.       Carrying capacity is max # of individuals in a pop.  That can sustain in environment

b.      Once limit is passed, pop. Will go down until balance

B.     Logistic growth

a.       Shows what affects carrying capacity has on growth

b.      Density dependent controls help reduce the odds for individual survival

III. Density independent limiting factors

A.     Cause less births andmore deaths regardless of pop. Density

a.       Ex. Monarch butterflies in central mexico threatened by deforestation and freezes

b.  Type I curves reflect high survorship until fairly late in life, then high mortality rates, such as in elephants. Type II curves reflect a fairly constant death rate at all ages, which is seen in snowy egret populations. Type III curves signify a death rate  that is highest early in life, exemplified in sea star larvae populations.

c.    1. An age structure diagram depicting negative growth would have bars representing reproductive and post reproductive ages much larger than  pre-reproductive ages. 2. An age structure diagram depicting no growth would show all bars representing all ages generally at the same size.  3.  An age structure diagram depicting rapid growth would have the pre-reproductive year bars substantially larger than the reproductive years, which would be greatly larger than post-reproductive years.  4. An age structure diagram depicting slow growth would, like a rapid growth diagram, have the younger ages bigger than older ages, just not as drastic.

d. I. Inputs into ecosystems

            A. Nitrogen mainly enters via nitrogen fixation

            a. moves up trophic levels

            b. ammonification transfers ammonium into soil

            c. nitrification helps the ammonium become nitrogen

            B. Loss of nitrogen via denitrification

            a. other factors of loss include runoff and leaching

    II. disruptions by human activities

A.     Deforestation and grassland conversion

a.       Erosion

B.     Rotation of crops

a.       Helps counter nitrogen losses

C.     Fertilizers

a.       Pollutes bodies of water with nitrogen waste

b.      Does promote algal blooms

(for diagram see pg. 860)

Nitrifying bacteria are located on the cycle when nitrification occurs, denitrifying bacteria are located where denitrification occurs on the cycle, ammonifying bacteria are located where ammonification occurs, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are located where nitrogen-fixing occurs.

Chapter 46 & 49

II Connections
a.  Commensalism and coevolution both are results from ecological interections between species.  However, in commensalism, one species benefits from the relationship and the other is barely affected. Coeevolution, on the other hand, results from changes in one species creating slection pressure on futer generationbs of another species.
b. Mimicry and aposematic coloration asre both used by prey to ecape or avoid oredators, and both are ven used by predators. Aposematic coloration is used by prey to let predators know that it is not tasty or is harmful.  Mimicry involves prey using a dangerous model and disguises itsleg as the model, making predators less likely to attack them.
c. Alleles are different forms of a gene and arise from mutation and provide variation to a trait.  This can influence altruism, in which an individual acts differently and decreases its chances of reproduction while improving the chances for others in its species. Alleles may never be found in futer generations as a result of altruism.
d.  a population is all of the individual organisms of the same species, which reproduce only with others like themselves in DNA and body structure, living in a specific area.  A niche is the sum total of all activities and relationships of all of the individuals in a specific species participate in as they compete for resources vital for survival and reproduction.
III. Essentials
1. A hawk takes shelter in the safety of a pine tree's branches.  The hawk benefits from the relationship and more of its species begin to do the same, but the species of pine tree the hawks live in are not affected by the relationship.
2. A yuccamoth uses yucca plants to reproduce by laying its eggs in the flower's ovary while pushing pollen into the flower's pollen platform. As a result, both the yucca plant and moth reproduce successfully.
3. A tapeworm lives inside a human's digestive tract, leeching nutrients from the digested food, resulting in the death of the human and the proliferation of the tape worm.
4.Bristly foxtail, Indian mallow, and smartweed populate a field. In order for all three species to survive, they adapt the lengths of their roots so different layers of the soil remain occupied by only one species.
5. Wolves in a certain area evolve with higher stamina, resulting in more caribou being killed and a decrese in thier population. As result, the traits in the caribou also evolve so that they run faster and escape more easily.
6. A chameleon camoflauges itself when it is on a brown stem whil a bird flies over head.
7. A beetle, in order to survive its predators, mimics the dangerous model of a yellowjacket.
8. A very poisoness tree frog is marked with vibrant red spots on its green body to warn predators to stay away or else they will be harmed.
9. Glaciers retreat from a mountain and mosses form on the exposed land mass. Centriesof evolution result in formation of forests and plants.
10. When seastars are absent, mussels become the most dominant competitors of seven other invetebrates.
11.A newborn garter snake, by instinct, tongue-flicked a cptton swab drenched with tissue fluids from a banana slug, its natural prey.
12. Baby gees imprint on their mother and follow her during a short period of time after they hatch.
13. A lion hunts its prey by charging it, resulting in less successful outcomes of hunting. Other lions evolve to sneak up on prey  due to this lion's faults.
14. Female silk moths release Bombylol molecules to attract male silk moths kilometers away in order for sexual reproduction to occur.
15. Honeybees dance when a scout locates pollen sources. It dances, signaling to the hive the direction of the source.
16. Adele penguins have ritualized behaviors of laying heads on each other.